The historical development of limit state design in geotechnical engineering is reviewed. Total and partial factors of safety used for the design of land-based and offshore structures are compared. It is found that the factors of safety in different codes for the ultimate and serviceability limit states design of earthworks, earth retaining structures and land-based and offshore foundations are very similar.

Partial factors in the ultimate limit state design are linked to the variability of the loads and soil parameters, the design approximations and construction tolerances. They influence  the nominal probability of failure of the type of structure considered and the seriousness of failure which differ for land-based and offshore structures. These probabilities are compared with human fatality risks of common experiences.

The serviceability limit states are governed by structural and operational costraints and the intended service life of the structure either land-based or offshore. The corresponding partial factors are generally taken as unity.